Elliot J. Berg, "The Development of a Labour Force in Sub-Saharan Africa"; France sold Louisiana to the United States, Learn how and when to remove this template message, Military history of Nigeria during World War II, National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons, discovery and exploitation of petroleum deposits, "The Nigeria (Constitution) Order in Council, 1954", "Gombe-Abba: Historic emirs' town ruined by the British", A Very Bloody Transaction: Old Calabar and the Massacre of 1767, The Impact of the Slave Trade on African Economies, "Managing Epidemic: The British Approach to 19181919 Influenza in Lagos", "The Nigerian Victory Against The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and 1897 Smallpox Epidemic", "African Pentecostalism and the 1918 Influenza Pandemic: The Supernatural Amid the Fearful and Implications for the COVID-19 Pandemic", "The influenza pandemic of 191819 and the spread of cassava cultivation on the lower Niger: a study in historical linkages", Google Cultural Institute: Birth of the Nigerian Colony, 18511914, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Colonial_Nigeria&oldid=1136412842, Former British colonies and protectorates in Africa, 1914 establishments in the British Empire, 1960 disestablishments in the British Empire, States and territories established in 1914, States and territories disestablished in 1960, Short description is different from Wikidata, Pages using infobox country or infobox former country with the flag caption or type parameters, Pages using infobox country or infobox former country with the symbol caption or type parameters, Articles needing additional references from July 2019, All articles needing additional references, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0. [21], Whether British conquest of Nigeria resulted from a benevolent motive to end slavery or more instrumental motives of wealth and power, remains a topic of dispute between African and European historians. Description. As a further step toward independence, the Governor's Executive Council was merged with the Council of Ministers in 1957 to form the all-Nigerian Federal Executive Council. [70], Lugard's immediate successor (19191925), Sir Hugh Clifford, was an aristocratic professional administrator with liberal instincts who had won recognition for his enlightened governorship of the Gold Coast in 19121919. However, in October 1929 in Oloko a census related to taxation was conducted, and the women in the area suspected that this was a prelude to the extension of direct taxation, which had been imposed on the men the previous year. [19] Ultimately, this became the Royal Niger Company. Men such as Balewa believed that only by overcoming political and economic backwardness could the NPC protect the foundations of traditional northern authority against the influence of the more advanced south. Great Britain was the leaders at this time in colonizing the land filled with rich natural recourses. One of the factors that contributed to the success of indirect rule in Northern Nigeria was the use of the existing traditional system of administration. After the Berlin Conference of 1884, Britain announced the formation of the Oil Rivers Protectorate, which included the Niger Delta and extended eastward to Calabar, where the British Consulate General was relocated from Fernando Po. These included the decline of the Mughal Empire. ", Helen Chapin Metz, ed. NEPU formed a parliamentary alliance with the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC). It is not a unitary state with local government areas but with one Central Executive and one Legislature. The Niger Delta and Calabar, which once had been known for the export of slaves, became notable for the export of palm oil. In 1946 a new constitution was approved by the British Parliament at Westminster and promulgated in Nigeria. At first, they lived in small family groups, but gradually these groups developed into a. Open Document. In November 1908, Bergheim reported striking oil; in September 1909, he reported extracting 2,000 barrels per day. In a sense, you can say that the British were the cause of the Biafran Civil War which happened in Nigeria from 1967 to 1970. [23] Regardless, slavery had decimated the population and fuelled militarisation and chaos, thereby paving the way for more aggressive colonisation.[21][24]. An example was that at Onitsha, where they could bargain directly with local suppliers and purchase products likely to turn a profit. Robin Hermann, "Empire Builders and Mushroom Gentlemen: The Meaning of Money in Colonial Nigeria". Dike, K. O. The seven men who governed Northern Nigeria, Southern Nigeria and Lagos through 1914 were Henry McCallum, William MacGregor, Walter Egerton, Ralph Moor, Percy Girouard, Hesketh Bell and Frederick Lugard. The trend was toward the establishment of a parliamentary system of government, with regional assemblies and a federal House of Representatives. Harding, director of Nigerian affairs at the Colonial Office, defined the official position of the British Government in support of indirect rule when he said that "direct government by impartial and honest men of alien race [] never yet satisfied a nation long and [] under such a form of government, as wealth and education increase, so do political discontent and sedition". The policy of indirect rule used in Northern Nigeria became a model for British colonies elsewhere in Africa. The principal figure in the political activity that ensued was Herbert Macauley, often referred to as the father of Nigerian nationalism. 1) Lack of British Personnel: Obviously Nigeria was not the only West African country colonized by the British, other countries like Ghana, Sierra-Leone and The Gambia were part of the British colonies. In 1894 the territory was redesignated the Niger Coast Protectorate and was expanded to include the region from Calabar to Lagos Colony and Protectorate, including the hinterland, and northward up the Niger River as far as Lokoja, the headquarters of the Royal Niger Company. In this way Bishop Samuel Ajayi Crowtherborn in the Yoruba-inhabited area of Oshogbo and the first African ordained by the CMSwas able to establish mission stations at Onitsha, Lokoja, and Eggan and later at Brass and Bonny. For this objective, the Company chose to administer the African inhabitants of the Niger Sudan through their traditional rulers and their political institutions. They caused major transformations in traditional society as they eroded the religious institutions such as human sacrifice, infanticide and secret societies, which had formerly played a role in political authority and community life.[26]. Although his own ambitions were limited to the Northern Region, Bello backed the NPC's successful efforts to mobilize the north's large voting strength so as to win control of the national government. The factors that led to the colonization of africa by the europeans. By 18261850, the British Royal Navy was intervening significantly with Lagos slave exports. How did use of enslaved African people for labour develop? He insisted on maintaining the territorial integrity of the Northern Region. [19], West Africa also bought British exports, supplying 3040% of the demand for British cotton during the Industrial Revolution of 17501790.[27]. The mud-walled city of Kano was captured in February, and, after a vigorous skirmish at Kotorkwashi, the sultan's capital, Sokoto, fell the next month. To some extent, competition amongst these companies undermined their collective position vis--vis, local merchants. But by providing for comparable regional governments exercising broad legislative powers, which could not be overridden by the newly established 185-seat federal House of Representatives, the Macpherson Constitution also gave a significant boost to regionalism. Bello wanted to protect northern social and political institutions from southern influence. [18], In 1807, the Parliament of the United Kingdom enacted the Slave Trade Act, prohibiting British subjects from participating in the Atlantic slave trade. In all three regions, minority parties represented the special interests of ethnic groups, especially as they were affected by the majority. Separate legislative bodies, the houses of assembly, were established in each of the three regions to consider local questions and to advise the Lieutenant Governors. The Colonial Office approved most of Lugard's plan, but balked at authorising him to pass laws without their approval. Men Local rulers continued to administer their territories, but consular authorities assumed jurisdiction for the equity courts established earlier by the foreign mercantile communities. [19] This scenario provided an opportunity for naval expeditions and reconnaissance throughout the region. Colonial official A. J. Harding commented in 1913: Sir F. Lugard's proposal contemplates a state which it is impossible to classify. Catholic missionaries were particularly active among the Igbo; the CMS worked among the Yoruba. To reduce costs, Lagos was administered first from Freetown in Sierra Leone, along with Gold Coast forts such as Elmina, and later from Accra (in present-day Ghana); only in 1886 did Lagos become a separate colony. Laird's efforts were stimulated by the detailed reports of a pioneer German explorer, Heinrich Barth, who travelled through much of Borno and the Sokoto Caliphate, where he recorded information about the region's geography, economy and inhabitants. Agents also collected intelligence for the colonial officials; they gathered information on public opinion and the military resources of the local polities; they also spied on rival colonial forces in foreign territories. Park reached the upper Niger the next year by travelling inland from the Gambia River. In general, the regional constitutions followed the federal model, both structurally and functionally. Ever since, the north-south divide has dominated the politics of independent Nigeria. [73] An estimated 500,000 Nigerians would lose their lives due to the pandemic, severely decreasing production capabilities on Nigerian farms and plantations. The war was between the Republic of Nigeria and the Republic of Biafra, a secessionist nation that had declared independence from Nigeria. It was replaced by a new coalition government led by David Lloyd George featuring Conservatives and Lloyd George's supporters in the Liberal Party, while Asquith and the remainder of the Liberals entered opposition.[69]. Nigeria: A Country Study. Consequently, he may well deserve the epithet of the "father of Nigeria", which historians accorded him. But in the 1700s, the Bight of Benin (also known as the Slave Coast) became the next most important hub. Britain subsequently lobbied other European powers to stop the slave trade as well. 2. The pulpits of the independent congregations became avenues for the free expression of critics of colonial rule. Three constitutions were enacted from 1946 to 1954. rockin' the west coast prayer group; easy bulky sweater knitting pattern. The Reconquista, or reconquest, refers to the 800 years of violence and expulsion of Muslims from the Iberian Peninsula after the failed Crusades. In time, they built depots onshore and eventually moved up the Niger River to establish stations in the interior. The goal of activists initially was not self-determination, but increased participation on a regional level in the governmental process. All these things which I have said the Fulani by conquest took the right to do now pass to the British. Beecroft was the British representative to Fernando Po, where the African Slave Trade Patrol of the Royal Navy was stationed. 1839 - The Opium Wars between China and Britain, resulting from the trade of opium leading to widespread addictions. Despite these difficulties, the Action Group rapidly built an effective organisation. [73] In direct reaction to the epidemic, colonial authorities allowed African doctors and medical personnel to work with influenza patients due to the severity of the situation. June 30, 2022 . PhD dissertation accepted at the Graduate Programme in History, York University, Ontario. Officials of the Sokoto Caliphate considered these treaties quite differently; from their perspective, the British were granted only extraterritorial rights that did not prevent similar arrangements with the Germans and the French and certainly did not surrender sovereignty. British staffs in each region continued to operate according to procedures developed before unification. Siollun concludes with what he calls "the mistake of 1914": his view that the British resolution to join their northern and southern protectorates into one poorly integrated colony constitutes the single most consequential decision of colonial rule in Nigeria. The British and the French fought the Carnatic Wars, which the British won decisively - making the British the foremost colonial power. Independent Christian churches had emerged at the end of the nineteenth century. These recourses were considered a necessity to the industrialization of the world . British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston detested slavery, and in 1851 he took advantage of divisions in native politics, the presence of Christian missionaries, and the maneuvers of British consul John Beecroft to encourage the overthrow of the regime. In popular parlance, discussions of colonialism in Africa usually focus on the European conquests that resulted in the scramble for Africa after the Berlin Conference in the 19th century. 3. Its program reflected greater planning and was more ideologically oriented than that of the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons. Otherwise, the Governor-General's office was essentially ceremonial. In 1916, Sir Edward Carson led the majority of the Conservative and Unionist Party to vote against Party Leader Bonar Law on the issue, forcing it to withdraw from the Asquith coalition and for the government to begin to break apart. The company interfered in the territory along the Niger and the Benue, sometimes becoming embroiled in serious conflicts when its British-led native constabulary intercepted slave raids or attempted to protect trade routes. The British were not yet willing to assume the expense of maintaining an administration in Nigeria. Crowther was succeeded as bishop by a British cleric. THE FULANI CONQUEST AND RULE OF THE HAUSA KINGDOM 235 from 1804, the date of the Hegira. [19] Although the Ijebu had some weapons they were wiped out by British Maxims, the earliest machine gun. [59], Lugard advocated constantly for the unification of the whole territory, and in August 1911 the Colonial Office asked Lugard to lead the amalgamated colony.[60]. Imperialism, or the extension of one nation-state's domination or control over territory outside its own boundaries, peaked in the 19th century as European powers extended their holdings around the world. [64], Each region also had a Native Administration, staffed by locals, and possessing a Native Treasury. Observers have pinned the 'humanity's worst mistake' label on several of history's major institutions, ranging from the adoption of agriculture to twentieth-century communism (Diamond Reference Diamond 1987; Economist 2009).In our assessment, the institution of modern colonialism - meaning the exploration, conquest, settlement, and political dominance of distant lands by European and . Local leaders, cognizant of the situation in the West Indies, India, and elsewhere, recognised the risks of British expansion. By an overwhelming majority, voters in the Southern Cameroons opted to join formerly French-administered Cameroon over integration with Nigeria as a separate federated region. The influx of cowrie led to inflation. Some of them also manned Company stations and served as District Agents.". It was British colonialism which was the ultimate cause of the war . Exploration was intensified in 1946, but the first commercial discovery did not occur until 1956, at Olobiri in the Niger Delta. The staff of this office came primarily from the British upper-middle classi.e., university-educated men, primarily not nobility, with fathers in well-respected professions. The classic example in English history was the victory of the Parliament over the king. By 1938 the NYM was agitating for dominion status within the British Commonwealth of Nations so that Nigeria would have the same status as Canada and Australia. In 1805, he set out on a second expedition, sponsored by the British Government, to follow the Niger to the sea. The racial discriminatory tendencies of the Europeans to Nigerians. Far from that, NEPU political struggles transformed the Nigerian Independence struggle from the fight against the British to a fight against both the British and the local agents of the British (the Aristocracy). In the South, only English had official status. However, the British East India Company was able to lay the foundation of an empire in the Indian sub-continent because, from a British perspective, of a fortuitous series of circumstances. The Delta streams were called "oil rivers". In time they captured Oba Ovonramwen and sent him into exile to Calabar, a town east of Benin. Balewa formed a coalition government that included the Action Group as well as the NCNC to prepare the country for the final British withdrawal. Kingdoms and empires of precolonial Nigeria, Controversies surrounding the 2007 presidential election, Nigeria under Umaru Musa YarAdua and Goodluck Jonathan, The 2015 elections and electorate concerns, Recession, fight against corruption, and insecurity, Which Country Is Larger By Population? [75] The colonial government was not equipped nor ready in general for such a situation. Its final leg enabled it to meet another line, constructed 19071911, running from Baro, through Minnia, to Kano. It continued to enjoy special privileges and maintained a de facto monopoly over commerce. The war was driven by the commercial and imperial rivalry between Britain and France, and by the antagonism between Prussia (allied to Britain) and Austria (allied to France). In practice, Lugard used the annual sessions to inform the traditional rulers of British policy, leaving them with no functions at the council's meetings except to listen and to assent. Initial British attempts to open trade with the interior by way of the Niger could not overcome climate and diseases such as malaria. [46] Lugard was slow to describe these excursions to the Colonial Office, which apparently learned of preparations to attack Kano from the newspapers in December 1902. The British High Commissioners could depose emirs and other officials if necessary. In the Northern Region, the colonial government took careful account of Islam and avoided any appearance of a challenge to traditional values that might incite resistance to British rule. "Separatist Agitations in Nigeria Since 1914." To . His mission failed, but Park and his party covered more than 1,500 kilometres (930mi), passing through the western portions of the Sokoto Caliphate, before drowning when their boats overturned in rapids near Bussa. A.J. (This was also reflective of growing pan-Africanism among American activists of the time.) It represented a substantial element of reformism in the North. They took the right to rule over it, to levy taxes, to depose kings and to create kings. The economy suffered from the decline in the slave trade, although considerable smuggling of slaves to the Americas continued for years afterward. [72], The Influenza pandemic made its way to the port of Lagos by September 1918 by way of a number of ships including the SS Panayiotis, the SS Ahanti, and the SS Bida. On a subsequent expedition to the Sokoto Caliphate, Scottish explorer Hugh Clapperton learned about the mouth of the Niger River, and where it reached the sea, but after suffering malaria, depression and dysentery, he died before confirming it. Falola, Toyin, Ann Genova, and Matthew M. Heaton. [77] Its revenue quickly increased, from 4,424 in 1901 to 274,989 in 1910. Its architecture was in both Victorian and Brazilian style, as many of the black elite were English-speakers from Sierra Leone and freedmen repatriated from the Empire of Brazil and Spanish Cuba. Its effects are still widely felt up till today. The cleavage between the Yoruba and the Igbo was accentuated by their competition for control of the political machinery. The most important innovations in the new charter reinforced the dual course of constitutional evolution, allowing for both regional autonomy and federal union. In 1907, the corporation received a loan of 25,000, repayable upon discovery of oil. Colonial Lagos was a busy, cosmopolitan port. His objective was to conquer the entire region and to obtain recognition of the British protectorate by its indigenous rulers, especially the Fulani emirs of the Sokoto Caliphate. British colonialism led to the spread of the English language in Africa, and many former British colonies still maintain English as an official language. France sold Louisiana to the United States in 1803, the same year that it gave up on trying to regain Saint-Domingue from the Haitian Revolution. Early nationalists tended to ignore Nigeria as the focus of patriotism. In the north Frederick Lugard, the first high commissioner of Northern Nigeria, was instrumental in subjugating the Fulani emirs. With this victory, the British went on to conquer the rest of Yorubaland, which had also been weakened by sixteen years of civil war. At the same time it is feasible by degrees to bring them gradually into approximation with our ideas of justice and humanity. In an economy with many qualified applicants for every post, great resentment was generated by any favouritism that authorities showed to members of their own ethnic group. A constabulary force was raised and used to pacify the coastal area. By 1919 the National Council of British West Africa, an organization consisting of elites across West Africa, was demanding that half the members of the Legislative Council be Africans; they also wanted a university in West Africa and more senior positions for Africans in the colonial civil service. In some instances, however, a double allegianceto the idea of sacred monarchy for its symbolic value and to modern concepts of law and administrationwas maintained. European slave trading from West Africa began before 1650, with people taken at a rate of about 3,000 per year. Missionary forces demanded prohibition of liquor, which proved highly unpopular. It was suspended in 1950 against a call for greater autonomy, which resulted in an inter-parliamentary conference at Ibadan in 1950. Similar status was acquired by the Northern Region two years later. At the same time, George Dashwood Goldie, a British businessman, bought out all French rivals and created the Royal Niger Company (chartered 1886) in order to control trade on the Niger and administer the immense territories of the Sokoto caliphate and Borno. The approaches of the two men to colonial development were diametrically opposed. The Action Group, which staged a lively campaign, favoured stronger government and the establishment of three new states while advocating the creation of a West Africa Federation that would unite Nigeria with Ghana and Sierra Leone. The British wanted products like palm oil and palm kernel and export trade in tin, cotton, cocoa, groundnuts, palm oil and so on (Graham, 2009). The British colonization of Kenya destroyed the culture and economy of the native people, but it established a democratic government and left Kenya a more modernized country. The most dramatic event having a long-term effect on Nigeria's economic development was the discovery and exploitation of petroleum deposits. The British led a series of military campaigns to enlarge its sphere of influence and expand its commercial opportunities. Although realistic in its assessment of the situation in Nigeria, the Richards Constitution undoubtedly intensified regionalism as an alternative to political unification. The militias and RWAFF battalions were reorganized into the RWAFF Nigeria Regiment.[62]. The NPC federal parliamentary leader, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, was appointed Prime Minister of Nigeria.